Following are approaches used by mainstream attachment theorists and clinicians aimed at infants or children who have developed or are at risk of developing less desirable, insecure attachment styles or an attachment disorder.


Dyadic developmental psychotherapy: For families that have children with symptoms of emotional disorders, including complex trauma and disorders of attachment. The 'dyad' referred to must eventually be the parent-child dyad. It involves creating a 'playful, accepting, curious, and empathic' environment in which the therapist attunes to the child's 'subjective experiences' and reflects this back to the child.

Child–parent psychotherapy (CPP): This approach to treating disturbed infant–parent relationships is based on the theory that disturbances are manifestations of unresolved conflicts in the parent's past relationships. The 'patient' is the infant–parent relationship.

'Circle of Security': The aim is to present ideas to the parents in a user-friendly, common-sense fashion that they can understand both cognitively and emotionally. This is done by a graphic representation of the child's needs and attachment system in circle form, summarising the child's needs and the safe haven provided by the caregiver.

'Watch, wait and wonder', Cohen et al. (1999): It is based on the notion of the infant as initiator in infant–parent psychotherapy. The idea is that it increases the mother's sensitivity and responsiveness by fostering an observational reflective stance, whilst also being physically accessible. Also the infant has the experience of negotiating their relationship with their mother.

'Manipulation of sensitive responsiveness', van den Boom (1994) (The Leiden Programs): This intervention was based on Ainsworth's sensitive responsiveness components, namely perceiving a signal, interpreting it correctly, selecting an appropriate response and implementing the response effectively.